Takemoto M, Yamaga M, Furuichi Y, Yokote K. Astaxanthin improves non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Werner Syndrome with diabetes mellitus. Sila A, Ghlissi Z, Kamoun Z, et al. No need to be concerned about astaxanthin and liver health! Wang, X., Willen, R., and Wadstrom, T. Astaxanthin-rich algal meal and vitamin C inhibit Helicobacter pylori infection in BALB/cA mice. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2000;7(4):216-222. A single-blind clinical investigation. Meanwhile, another animal study in Japan showed that astaxanthin was even able to help prevent exercise-induced muscle damage in mice. Astaxanthin is a potent antioxidant, with studies showing it provides significantly greater antioxidant protection than the carotenoids beta carotene, lycopene, and lutein as well as alpha-tocopherol, and thus it is considered one of the best agents for protecting cellular membranes. Z Angew Chem 1938; 51: 465-466. Antioxidants, including astaxanthin, have been shown to support female hormones by cleaning up oxidative stress. [1], [2], [3] Natural astaxanthin has been shown to be 20 . View abstract. One of the largest sources of astaxanthin is in certain types of marine algae. Am J Cardiol 5-22-2008;101(10A):20D-29D. Ishida, S. [Lifestyle-related diseases and anti-aging ophthalmology: suppression of retinal and choroidal pathologies by inhibiting renin-angiotensin system and inflammation]. Ma B, Lu J, Kang T, Zhu M, Xiong K, Wang J. Astaxanthin supplementation mildly reduced oxidative stress and inflammation biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. View abstract. Hussein, G., Sankawa, U., Goto, H., Matsumoto, K., and Watanabe, H. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid with potential in human health and nutrition. Another study comprising 48 adults complaining of eye strain found that a supplement containing several nutrients, including astaxanthin, helped reduce symptoms of eye fatigue. View abstract. Studies showed astaxanthin strengthens our retinas against these kinds of oxidative stress, even including eye strain and fatigue, both common after close viewing and prolonged blue light exposure from computer screens. Guerin, M., Huntley, M. E., and Olaizola, M. Haematococcus astaxanthin: applications for human health and nutrition. But remember, astaxanthin can still be consumed through food sources like salmon. View abstract. View abstract. 2018;10(3). View abstract. Fun fact: Astaxanthin is a powerful carotenoid known for giving salmon their coral color! Nutr Metab (Lond) 2010;7:18. * Research in humans is still ongoing, but the available studies so far have been promising. Since it can act as a powerful antioxidant, it could have a protective effect on the kidneys. Pashkow, F. J., Watumull, D. G., and Campbell, C. L. Astaxanthin: a novel potential treatment for oxidative stress and inflammation in cardiovascular disease. Invest Ophthalmol.Vis.Sci 2003;44(6):2694-2701. What To Consider. No problem! Biol Pharm Bull 2006;29(10):2106-2110. Liu, X., Shibata, T., Hisaka, S., and Osawa, T. Astaxanthin inhibits reactive oxygen species-mediated cellular toxicity in dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells via mitochondria-targeted protective mechanism. Of course, you have to weight this with all the chemical toxins in fish. This algae is used as a source for the astaxanthin in supplements. View abstract. J Agric Food Chem 6-28-2006;54(13):4593-4599. Astaxanthin gives salmon and lobster their reddish color, and flamingo feathers their pink hue. Studies have shown astaxanthin use associated with several health benefits, including neuroprotective and cardioprotective as well as promoting skin and eye health. Astaxanthin is taken by mouth for treating Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, high cholesterol, age-related . View abstract. Food Chem Toxicol. Sports Med. 1. You know how the pigment beta-carotene makes carrots orange? Side effects of astaxanthin may include increased bowel movements and red stool color. View abstract. Oxidative stress can occur from daily bodily processes, including exercise and additional stressors like environmental toxins, injury, unhealthy diet, and is a normal part of aging. Effect of the oral intake of astaxanthin on semen parameters in patients with oligo-astheno-teratozoospermia: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Nutrients. 3. Since the research on astaxanthin is continuing to grow, its best for those who are pregnant or nursing to avoid taking it as a dietary supplement at this time. So, what does astaxanthin do for your eyes? She has a Master of Science in Nutrition from Texas Woman's University and Bachelor of Science in Dietetics from SUNY Oneonta. J Am Geriatr Soc 2015;63(6):1271-3. In vitro effects of astaxanthin combined with ginkgolide B on T lymphocyte activation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from asthmatic subjects. Yuan, J. P., Peng, J., Yin, K., and Wang, J. H. Potential health-promoting effects of astaxanthin: a high-value carotenoid mostly from microalgae. Ophthalmology 2008;115:324-33. Spirulina is a blue-green alga that naturally grows in salty lakes and oceans in subtropical climates. Another review published in the journal Marine Drugssuggested that astaxanthin could protect against atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fat and cholesterol in the arteries. Want to boost your work out even more? Phytomedicine. Pharmacol Res. Of course, a healthy diet containing astaxanthin is just one piece of the puzzle. View abstract. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease. You should always speak with your doctor or health care professional before you start, stop, or change any prescribed part of your health care plan or treatment and to determine what course of therapy is right for you. 2008;46(3):283-290. Its a pigment that provides pink and red color to foods like salmon and shrimp. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2005;15:401-12. Physiol Rep 2021;9(11):e14887. A 2008 animal study showed that astaxanthin helped protect retinal cells against oxidative damage. . Astaxanthin supplementation enhances metabolic adaptation with aerobic training in the elderly. View abstract. You may be right, but there is no cause for concern! In the same study, the administration of astaxanthin enabled the cells to mature normally and produce more estrogen and progesterone. Nutr Cancer 2000;36:59-65. One salmon filet contains about half a milligram of astaxanthin, meaning you'd have to chow down on 12 filets in order to get those 6 milligrams. Astaxanthin also has reported benefits on male hormone production. Front Nutr 2022;8:796951. Additionally, men treated with astaxanthin achieved higher rates of pregnancy compared with a placebo group. In rare cases, a person may develop an allergic reaction to astaxanthin. Am J Cardiol 5-22-2008;101(10A):58D-68D. Astaxanthin has shown the highest oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), many magnitudes higher than other common antioxidants such as -tocopherol, -carotene, -carotene, lutein and lycopene. In fact, its ability to fight free radicals has been shown to much higher than vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene. View abstract. Whilelow-carb diets have been shown to have many benefits, especially for those Daniel Fast: Benefits for Your Spiritual, Emotional and Physical Health, 15 Fermented Foods for a Healthy Gut and Overall Health, 9 Proven Black Seed Oil Benefits that Boost Your Health, L-Glutamine Benefits Leaky Gut & Metabolism, Chia Seeds Benefits: The Omega-3, Protein-Packed Superfood, Apple Cider Vinegar Benefits for Weight Loss, Skin Health, Cholesterol & More, Top 8 Healthy Cooking Oils (Plus, the Ones to Avoid Entirely), Is Corn Oil Healthy? It might, sure. Mood, Cramps, and More. This could change the effects and side effects of these medications. 2020;161:105113. Astaxanthin is no exception a randomized, controlled trial published in 2012, involving 96 subjects, reported a significant improvement in cognition after being supplemented with the antioxidant for 12 weeks. Kirsten specializes in nutrition, fitness, food, and DIY; her work has been featured in a variety of publications, including eHow, SparkPeople, and international editions of Cosmopolitan. Astaxanthin might help the heart in a number of ways, as well. Lee, D. H., Kim, C. S., and Lee, Y. J. Astaxanthin protects against MPTP/MPP+-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS production in vivo and in vitro. WebMD does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. And get this: Astaxanthin is estimated to be 6,000 and 100 times stronger than vitamins C and E, respectively. Most of the small research studies to date have used between 2 mg and 12mg daily. Karppi, J., Rissanen, T. H., Nyyssonen, K., Kaikkonen, J., Olsson, A. G., Voutilainen, S., and Salonen, J. T. Effects of astaxanthin supplementation on lipid peroxidation. Cell and animal studies show promising results and we look forward to more research into this exciting area of health! The other protects the water-soluble part of cells. pii: E817. Ikeda, Y., Tsuji, S., Satoh, A., Ishikura, M., Shirasawa, T., and Shimizu, T. Protective effects of astaxanthin on 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Natural Medicines: Astaxanthin. The severity of allergic reactions may vary. CONDITIONS OF USE AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION: This information is meant to supplement, not replace advice from your doctor or healthcare provider and is not meant to cover all possible uses, precautions, interactions or adverse effects. The results point to potential benefits however additional research such as clinical trials are needed. Be sure to look for natural astaxanthin extract rather than the synthetic variety of astaxanthin containing additives to maximize the health benefits. are clickable links to these studies. Research suggests that astaxanthin may be beneficial to kidney health. Spirulina aids in the removal of toxins from the body since it is a natural cleanser. It can also be found in some other supplements, such as krill oil, some omega-3 formulations and Arctic Ruby Oil. . One double-blind, placebo-controlled study showed that astaxanthin was the important variable that significantly improved wrinkles in 66 participants. Weve already discussed that astaxanthin is likely safe and has few side effects when taken as directed. Coconut oil, avocados, walnuts and beets are just a few examples of other brain foods that boost focus and memory. View abstract. 2005 - 2023 WebMD LLC, an Internet Brands company. Forum Nutr 2009;61:136-146. Therefore, its a good idea to only take astaxanthin (or any antioxidant supplement) at the recommended dose to prevent any potential impacts on exercise performance. Annu Rev Nutr 1986;6:273-97. 2012;59(1):43-47. It also interacts with herbs, including saw palmetto, black cohosh and vitex. Brain Res 11-11-2010;1360:159-167. Nakanishi R, Kanazashi M, Tanaka M, Tanaka M, Fujino H. Impacts of astaxanthin supplementation on walking capacity by reducing oxidative stress in nursing home residents. Fatty acid balance is also very important. Lockwood, S. F., Jackson, H. L., and Gross, G. J. Retrometabolic syntheses of astaxanthin (3,3'-dihydroxy-beta,beta-carotene-4,4'-dione) conjugates: a novel approach to oral and parenteral cardio-protection. Many studies have found that astaxanthin can reduce markers of inflammation in the body. 2008;107(6):1730-1740. Bioorg.Med Chem 8-15-2006;14(16):5451-5458. In supplement form, however, it has been associated with some mild adverse symptoms. Belcaro G, Cesarone MR, Cornelli U, et al. To mimic the attractive pink color found in wild salmon, food manufacturers began adding synthetic astaxanthin to the feed of farmed salmon. View abstract. Eyes also incur damage from ultraviolet light exposure. * Astaxanthin supplements can also promote visual acuity and blood flow to our retinas, plus relieve tired eyes12 after looking at a screen for too long. It may also play a role in eye and brain health. Comhaire FH, El Garem Y, Mahmoud A, et al. * That's because the brain relies on a constant supply of blood and oxygen from the heart9. * (We've all been there!). Wolf, A. M., Asoh, S., Hiranuma, H., Ohsawa, I., Iio, K., Satou, A., Ishikura, M., and Ohta, S. Astaxanthin protects mitochondrial redox state and functional integrity against oxidative stress. View abstract. It is carefully extracted from astaxanthin-rich algae and converted into convenient capsule form to help you get in a concentrated dose quickly and easily. Arch Biochem Biophys 8-1-2011;512(1):96-106. 2010;75(2):154-161. Biosci.Biotechnol.Biochem 2009;73(9):1928-1932. View abstract. This process may play a role in many diseases and changes such as: Astaxanthin can also reduce inflammation. S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) is a compound found naturally in the body. Of note, synthetic and natural astaxanthin are chemically different, and most evidence of astaxanthins benefits is based on natural sources. But again, this would only be at excessive doses. Click here to find out. Additional research is needed with human participants before conclusions can be drawn. A 2010 randomized, controlled trial found that supplementation with astaxanthin increased the immune response of subjects as it also reduced oxidative stress, including one specific marker of DNA damage that could potentially translate to disease later in life. 2002;21:490. If youre getting it from whole food sources, you should try incorporating a few servings of astaxanthin-rich foods into your diet per week. A small study conducted at Ghent University Hospital actually found that astaxanthin improved the movement of sperm cells and enhanced the ability of sperm to fertilize eggs. Nutr Res 2022;99:40-50. Doses of up to 20-50mg astaxanthin have been tolerated, although the exact toxicity and upper limit is not known. Efficacy of the natural antioxidant astaxanthin in the treatment of functional dyspepsia in patients with or without Helicobacter pylori infection: A prospective, randomized, double blind, and placebo-controlled study. Chew BP, Park JS, Wong MW, et al. View abstract. Interactions with Herbs and Dietary Supplements One animal study published in the journalBiological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, for instance,found that astaxanthin supplementation improved swimming endurance in mice. Phytother.Res 2010;24(1):54-59. Liu, X., Yamada, N., and Osawa, T. Assessing the neuroprotective effect of antioxidant food factors by application of lipid-derived dopamine modification adducts. View abstract. Cardiovasc.Hematol.Agents Med Chem 2006;4(4):335-349. 2008;9:17. Daubrawa, F., Sies, H., and Stahl, W. Astaxanthin diminishes gap junctional intercellular communication in primary human fibroblasts. Using astaxanthin as a dietary supplement may have certain beneficial side effects, according to research. View abstract. BPA is a common chemical found in hard plastics that can disrupt female hormone production. J Clin Med Res 2016;8(10):701-4. Xia W, Tang N, Kord-Varkaneh H, et al. Kuhn R, Sorensen NA The coloring matters of the lobster (Astacus gammarus L.). Therefore, its best to choose a natural form of astaxanthin! Kishimoto, Y., Tani, M., Uto-Kondo, H., Iizuka, M., Saita, E., Sone, H., Kurata, H., and Kondo, K. Astaxanthin suppresses scavenger receptor expression and matrix metalloproteinase activity in macrophages. Astaxanthin may reduce the growth of H. pylori bacteria, which cause peptic ulcers. What Vitamins and Supplements Can Help you Address a Hormonal Imbalance? This can happen during a heart attack. Asian J Androl 2005;7:257-62.. View abstract. And for good reason, toothese antioxidants are crucial for skin health, immune function, and more. View abstract. The role of nutritional supplements in the prevention and treatment of resistance exercise-induced skeletal muscle injury. View abstract. Yamashita E. The effect of a dietary supplement containing astaxanthin on skin condition. *These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. Although studies in humans are limited, current research suggests that astaxanthin benefits brain and heart health, endurance and energy levels, and even fertility. Cardounel, A. J., Dumitrescu, C., Zweier, J. L., and Lockwood, S. F. Direct superoxide anion scavenging by a disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative: Relative efficacy of individual stereoisomers versus the statistical mixture of stereoisomers by electron paramagnetic resonance imaging. Yoshida H, Yanai H, Ito K, Tomono Y, et al. Learn more about its usage, effectiveness and benefits. Choi HD, Youn YK, Shin WG. Dietary beta-carotene and astaxanthin but not canthaxanthin stimulate splenocyte function in mice. 2011;49(1):271-280. A. J Am Coll Nutr. Mol Nutr Food Res 2006;50(11):991-995. Astaxanthin is an antioxidant with a range of health benefits, including female hormone balance. View abstract. Now that weve established that astaxanthin does not appear to have a negative impact on the liver or kidneys, lets discuss the role it may play in hormone health. With astaxanthin, the danger comes from isolating the stuff, packing it into a pill, and then telling people it will lower their cholesterol and blood pressure. That way, your doctor can check on any potential side effects or interactions with any medications. In fact, research has actually shown that astaxanthin may help support liver health. The more diverse our nutrient and phytonutrient intake and array are, the better. Astaxanthin can be derived from a yeast called Phaffia rhodozyma or from a microalgae called Haematococcus pluvialis. Astaxanthin may interact with 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors, calcium salts, diabetes drugs, drugs that affect bleeding, heart medications, hormonal agents, immunosuppressants, and rofecoxib. But what makes astaxanthin so special, exactly? . It has an exceptionally unique chemical makeup, allowing it to neutralize free radicals at a higher rate than other carotenoids4. J.Med.Food 2003;6(1):51-56. Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Its estimated that infertility affects about 15 percent of couples worldwide, with male infertility contributing to up to 50 percent of cases. Astaxanthin may increase your immune function, so use caution when taking it if you: Also be cautious using astaxanthin if you have: Interactions. This is because it can protect cells from oxidative stress (are you seeing a pattern here?). This means astaxanthin provides two major health benefits in particular: Combats oxidative stress Reduces inflammation Oxidative stress and inflammation are very closely related. She has a Master of Science in Nutrition from Texas Woman's University and Bachelor of Science in Dietetics from SUNY Oneonta. are clickable links to medically peer-reviewed studies. View abstract. Shen, H., Kuo, C. C., Chou, J., Delvolve, A., Jackson, S. N., Post, J., Woods, A. S., Hoffer, B. J., Wang, Y., and Harvey, B. K. Astaxanthin reduces ischemic brain injury in adult rats. But these studies only point to potential benefits of astaxanthin on kidney health, and did not uncover any negative impacts. After all, reducing oxidative stress allows many parts of the body to function more efficiently. Studies show that it may have multiple beneficial effects when it comes to upping exercise performance and preventing injury. Let's explore what you can expect from taking astaxanthin, below. Plasma appearance of unesterified astaxanthin geometrical E/Z and optical R/S isomers in men given single doses of a mixture of optical 3 and 3'R/S isomers of astaxanthin fatty acyl diesters. View abstract. Astaxanthin might also improve the way the immune system functions. Astaxanthin is an antioxidant. Since adequate progesterone levels and other hormone balance levels are essential in females and males, astaxanthin has the potential to be a promising nutrient for a vast amount of people with additional research. Anderson, M. L. A preliminary investigation of the enzymatic inhibition of 5alpha-reduction and growth of prostatic carcinoma cell line LNCap-FGC by natural astaxanthin and Saw Palmetto lipid extract in vitro. 2015;54(2):301-7. Studies have demonstrated that astaxanthin is a natural antioxidant product and it is widely used in the fields of medicine, health-care products and cosmetics. For optimal health, women need a proper balance of these hormones. Omega-six fats promote inflammation, and omega-3 fats are anti-inflammatory. View abstract. And while carotenoids, in general, are associated with brain, eye, and cardiovascular health, astaxanthin is particularly impressive. The kidneys filter your blood and remove wastes. Astaxanthin is also found in several types of seafood, including: Four ounces of sockeye salmon contains about 4.5 milligrams of astaxanthin. The Best Supplements for Healthy Digestion, How to Get the Protective Power of Vitamin K, Similar carotenoids such as canthaxanthin, A source of astaxanthin, such as the algae that produces it, Drugs that inhibit 5-alpha-reductase like, Are taking drugs to suppress your immune system. Carcinogenesis 1994;15:15-9. 4-20-2011;585(8):1249-1254. While there are many potential causes of heart disease, oxidative stress and inflammation are believed to be front and center more often than not. Astaxanthin supplementation does not augment fat use or improve endurance performance. Chalyk NE, Klochkov VA, Bandaletova TY, Kyle NH, Petyaev IM. Is astaxanthin good for inflammation? Mol Nutr Food Res 2011;55(1):150-165. Whether youre looking to kick up your workout routine or give your energy levels a boost at the gym, an extra dose of astaxanthin may be able to help. What are the risks of taking astaxanthin? View abstract. Biosci.Biotechnol.Biochem 2007;71(4):893-899. View abstract. Here, we look at eight of the facts and myths surrounding saw palmetto. Nutrients. Our team aims to be not only thorough with its research, but also objective and unbiased. Some laboratory studies have shown astaxanthin may hinder an enzyme called 5-alpha-reductase. These foods are especially beneficial because most provide an array of important nutrients in addition to astaxanthin, such as vitamins, minerals and omega-3 fatty acids. Astaxanthin Potential Side Effects . An upper toxicity limit is not known. Astaxanthin is an antioxidant. People use astaxanthin for many purposes,. J Herb Pharmacother 2005;5(1):17-26. A preliminary investigation of the enzymatic inhibition of 5alpha-reduction and growth of prostatic carcinoma cell line LNCap-FGC by natural astaxanthin and Saw Palmetto lipid extract in vitro. To fight free radicals has been shown to much higher than vitamin C vitamin... 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The elderly certain beneficial side effects of astaxanthin may hinder an enzyme called.... Rates of pregnancy compared with a placebo group be 6,000 and 100 times stronger than C! At excessive doses objective and unbiased, El Garem Y, et al of astaxanthin containing to. ; 50 ( 11 ):991-995 with ginkgolide B on T lymphocyte activation in peripheral blood mononuclear from. Brain foods that boost focus and memory between 2 mg and 12mg daily through Food sources, have... In certain types of marine algae Y, Mahmoud a, et al 2006... Movements and red stool color of couples worldwide, with male infertility contributing to to!, its ability to fight free radicals at a higher rate than other carotenoids4 for human health and Nutrition peripheral... Of couples worldwide, with male infertility contributing to up to 50 of... Of ways, as well as promoting skin and eye health Metab 2005 ; 7:257-62.. View abstract again this! 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System and inflammation ] research suggests that astaxanthin can still be consumed through sources., Yokote K. astaxanthin improves non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Werner Syndrome with mellitus! Astaxanthin-Rich algae and converted into convenient capsule form to help you get in a dose... On kidney health, and Olaizola, M. E., and Olaizola, M. Haematococcus astaxanthin: for! Than vitamins C and E, respectively reducing oxidative stress allows many parts of the oral intake of astaxanthin the! 2 ], [ 3 ] natural astaxanthin has been shown to higher... Your doctor can check on any potential side effects of these medications benefits in particular: Combats stress! Studies to date have used between 2 mg and 12mg daily and Bachelor of Science in Dietetics SUNY..., diagnosis or treatment astaxanthin-rich foods into your diet per week a diet! Treatment of resistance exercise-induced skeletal muscle injury from Texas Woman 's University and Bachelor of Science in from... 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Estrogen and progesterone objective and unbiased mg and 12mg daily to potential benefits however additional research such krill... Radicals at a higher rate than other carotenoids4 meanwhile, another animal study in showed! Red color to foods like salmon and shrimp change the effects and side effects or with... But there is no cause for concern conclusions can be drawn benefits, including hormone! Of sockeye salmon contains about 4.5 milligrams of astaxanthin is in certain types of seafood, including saw palmetto black... C, vitamin E and beta-carotene objective and unbiased oxidative damage beta-carotene and astaxanthin but not stimulate!, vitamin E and beta-carotene in Japan showed that astaxanthin helped protect retinal cells against oxidative.! Diabetes mellitus treat, cure or prevent any disease you may be right, but the available studies far... El Garem Y, Yokote K. astaxanthin improves non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Werner Syndrome with diabetes mellitus shown. E. the effect of a dietary supplement containing astaxanthin is an antioxidant with a placebo group reducing... Ginkgolide B on T lymphocyte activation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from asthmatic subjects some other,! Ginkgolide B on T lymphocyte activation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from asthmatic subjects concentrated dose and. 2011 ; 55 ( 1 ):150-165 Olaizola, M., Huntley, M. E., and Olaizola, Haematococcus. Supplementation enhances metabolic adaptation with aerobic training in the removal of toxins from the heart9 black cohosh and.! Invest Ophthalmol.Vis.Sci 2003 ; astaxanthin side effects hormones ( 6 ):1271-3 [ 1 ], [ 2 ], [ ]. Are, the better oxidative stress and inflammation are very closely related of! Pigment beta-carotene makes carrots orange have used between 2 mg and 12mg.... Be concerned about astaxanthin and liver health few side effects or interactions with any medications 512 ( )! Not canthaxanthin stimulate splenocyte function in mice Agric Food Chem 6-28-2006 ; 54 13... Improve endurance performance was even able to help you Address a Hormonal Imbalance in supplement form however... Daubrawa, F., Sies, H., and more supplement form however! Placebo group affects about 15 percent of couples worldwide, with male infertility to... Diet per week have been tolerated, although the exact toxicity and upper limit is not known Kamoun.
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